Clove (Syzygium aromaticum): A Promising Functional Ingredient for Companion Animals
- Clove's antioxidant strength comes primarily from eugenol, its dominant bioactive compound, making up 72-90% of clove essential oil.
- Studies show clove essential oil effectively inhibits bacteria linked to canine skin, ear, and wound infections, including drug-resistant strains.
- Research links clove to anti-inflammatory, analgesic, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic, neuroprotective, and anticancer properties.
- A natural antioxidant blend including clove oil performed comparably to synthetic preservatives (BHT) in dog food, without adverse effects.
- Venttura uses clove as a functional ingredient in its cold-pressed dog food for its antioxidant and natural preservative properties.
I . Introduction
Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) is the dried flower bud of a plant belonging to the Myrtaceae family. It is native to Indonesia's Maluku Islands but is now cultivated in many parts of the world [1]. The name "clove" originates from the French word clou and the English word clout, both meaning "nail," because the dried flower bud resembles the shape of a nail [2]. Botanically, clove is known as Syzygium aromaticum and is also referred to as Eugenia caryophyllata. It belongs to the Myrtaceae family, which comprises around 130-150 genera and approximately 3,000 species. These woody plants are significant because they serve as sources for various bioactive phytochemicals and essential oils. Clove is a potent source of various phytochemicals, including alkaloids, carbohydrates, glycosides, terpenoids, and phenolic compounds [3]. It serves as a primary reservoir for phenolic molecules, such as flavonoids, hydroxybenzoic acids, hydroxyphenyl propenes, hydroxycinnamic acids, and specifically, eugenol. Eugenol, which accounts for approximately 9.3% to 14.7% of fresh cloves, is considered the plant's principal bioactive component [4]. Additionally, fresh cloves contain a tannin content of 10% to 13%, with a chemical profile comparable to gallotannic acid; other notable constituents include ellagitannin and eugenin [2]. Furthermore, it contains flavonoids like kaempferol and quercetin, alongside a range of phenolic acids, including caffeic, gallic, salicylic, ferulic, and ellagic acids [5]. Cloves also provide a significant concentration of triterpenoids such as stigmasterol, oleanic acid, campesterol, and sitosterol as well as various sesquiterpenes [6]. Clove essential oil (CEO) is primarily derived from the plant’s buds, stems, and leaves typically comprising 15-20% of the clove’s total weight. This oil is generally characterized by a pale yellow or colorless appearance and a distinct clove-like flavor and aroma. The specific chemical profile of the CEO is influenced by several factors, including the harvesting maturity, raw material quality, seasonal variations, and geographical origin [2]. Research identifies 18 distinct compounds within the CEO, with eugenol, beta-caryophyllene, and eugenol acetate collectively accounting for approximately 99% of its total makeup. Among these, eugenol is the dominant component, representing between 72% and 90% of the oil’s overall constituents [6]. The therapeutic properties of clove are largely attributed to eugenol, a phenylpropanoid compound that serves as its principal bioactive constituent [15].
II . Benefits of Clove (Syzygium aromaticum)
Antioxidant Effects
Antioxidant activity is defined as the capacity to scavenge free radicals. Cloves are recognized as one of the most effective natural antioxidants because they are packed with phenolic substances and various other active phytochemicals. The oxygen radical absorption capacity (ORAC) test, created by the USDA, serves as the standard metric for comparing these antioxidant levels [2]. Whereas most common antioxidants reach scores in the tens of thousands, cloves boast an ORAC rating exceeding 10 million [6]. This is critical, as the metabolic byproduct known as reactive oxygen species (ROS) can trigger cell death and tissue impairment, ultimately disrupting physiological processes and fostering the development of chronic health conditions [7]. Clove-derived phytochemicals have the ability to neutralize ROS. The antioxidant capacity of cloves rivals that of synthetic and natural alternatives, including butylated hydroxytoluene, butylated hydroxyanisole, and alpha-tocopherol [8]. Phenolic and flavonoid compounds serve as the primary drivers of this activity [4], and research has established a direct relationship between a plant's total phenolic content and its overall antioxidant strength. Clove oil is particularly notable for its robust phenolic density and significant antioxidant power [5]. A single drop of this oil contains 400 times the antioxidant strength of blueberries [4]. Furthermore, cloves consistently outperform ginger, mint, cinnamon, pepper, garlic, and onion in comparative antioxidant testing [2]. A study investigated the replacement of the synthetic antioxidant butylhydroxytoluene (BHT) with a natural antioxidant formulation consisting of clove, rosemary, and oregano essential oils combined with vitamin E in canine diets. The natural formulation provided feed preservation and stability comparable to that achieved with BHT, without adversely affecting body weight or most haematological and metabolic parameters. Furthermore, dogs fed the natural antioxidant blend showed lower faecal bacterial counts, decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, and increased concentrations of endogenous antioxidant biomarkers, including non-protein sulfhydryl (NPSH) compounds and glutathione S-transferase. These findings indicated an improvement in antioxidant defence mechanisms and a reduction in oxidative stress. The authors concluded that the natural antioxidant blend was an effective alternative to BHT for preserving dog food while enhancing systemic antioxidant status in dogs. [20]. A systematic analysis examined how clove essential oil (Syzygium aromaticum) functions as a natural preservative within meat-based goods. This review revealed that incorporating the oil boosts oxidative stability, helps maintain original color, and lowers lipid oxidation and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS), all of which contribute to a longer shelf life. Given these results, the researchers determined that clove essential oil is a viable natural substitute for synthetic additives, as it effectively preserves the quality and stability of meat items. Furthermore, this evidence suggests that the oil is a strong candidate for use as a natural preservative and antioxidant in pet food production [21].
Antimicrobial Effects
Bacterial infections are among the common health concerns affecting companion animals, particularly dogs, and frequently involve the skin, ears, urinary tract, and surgical wounds. The increasing prevalence of antimicrobial resistance has prompted interest in natural compounds with antimicrobial properties.
Staphylococcus pseudintermedius belongs to the S. intermedius group (SIG), a classification that also encompasses S. intermedius and S. delphini. While these bacteria are common inhabitants of the healthy canine microbiota and generally harmless under normal physiological conditions, they can become opportunistic pathogens in immunocompromised animals or when specific predisposing factors are present. Among this group, S. pseudintermedius is the most common bacterium recovered from clinical cases involving pyoderma, otitis externa, and skin wounds, and it is also frequently linked to surgical site and urinary tract infections [16, 17, 18]. Although S. pseudintermedius was previously susceptible to beta-lactam antibiotics, the emergence of methicillin-resistant S. pseudintermedius (MRSP) in 2006 has since become a significant challenge in animal medicine. This growing bacterial resistance to standard antimicrobials has driven research into discovering safer, more effective strategies for managing chronic infections. In this context, essential oils (EOs) have gained significant attention for their antimicrobial potential and potential medical use. These oils are emerging as viable substitutes for traditional antibiotics due to their broad biological activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, along with their efficacy against fungi, viruses, and protozoa [15]. Canine otitis externa frequently necessitates veterinary intervention, yet the widespread and often uncritical use of antibiotics has fueled rising resistance among the primary pathogens involved in the condition. Research has indicated that essential oil from Syzygium aromaticum (clove) exhibits in vitro antimicrobial efficacy against Staphylococcus pseudintermedius samples collected from dogs suffering from otitis externa. In the investigation of 35 isolates comprising both oxacillin-susceptible and oxacillin-resistant strains clove essential oil successfully suppressed bacterial growth. The study reported an average minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of 6.4 mg/mL, leading the researchers to suggest that the oil's in vitro activity warrants further exploration as a potential therapeutic alternative [15]. Another in vitro investigation evaluated the antibacterial efficacy of clove essential oil against Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates recovered from dogs with otitis, including multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains. Antimicrobial susceptibility was determined using the broth microdilution method, which showed that all isolates were susceptible to the essential oil. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values ranged between 3.26 and 6.53 mg/mL. Chemical analysis identified eugenol as the predominant constituent of the oil. Based on these findings, the authors suggested that clove essential oil has considerable in vitro antimicrobial potential against MDR P. aeruginosa isolates. [19]
Anti-inflammatory Effects
Clove and its bioactive constituents possess well-documented anti-inflammatory properties [9]. Experimental studies have shown that clove exerts anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory responses. Essential oil rich in eugenol has been reported to reduce inflammation in murine macrophages through the suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines [10, 11], including interleukin-8 production in human gingival fibroblasts. The anti-inflammatory activity of eugenol is further attributed to its ability to inhibit neutrophil chemotaxis while downregulating cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression and prostaglandin synthesis [12]. The anti-inflammatory potential of clove (Syzygium aromaticum) oil was investigated in a preclinical rat model of chronic inflammation. Phytochemical analysis revealed that eugenol was the predominant constituent, accounting for 49.1% of the essential oil, while acute toxicity testing indicated a relatively high safety margin, with an LD₅₀ of 2225 mg/kg. Treatment with clove oil markedly suppressed granuloma formation compared with untreated animals, lowered circulating concentrations of the pro-inflammatory cytokine tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and enhanced the production of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 (IL-10). Based on these findings, the authors suggested that clove oil has significant anti-inflammatory potential and may facilitate the resolution of chronic inflammatory responses. [22]. Another laboratory study analyzed how clove (Syzygium aromaticum) essential oil affects human skin cells experiencing chronic inflammation and fibrosis. The findings showed that the oil significantly suppressed various pro-inflammatory markers, such as VCAM-1, IP-10, I-TAC, and MIG. Furthermore, it limited the expression of proteins linked to tissue restructuring specifically collagen I, collagen III, M-CSF, and TIMP-2while also adjusting the signaling pathways and gene activity associated with cancer development, tissue repair, and inflammation. The researchers concluded that clove oil demonstrates notable anti-inflammatory and tissue-modulating effects, reinforcing earlier findings regarding the potential anticancer properties of the oil and its primary component, eugenol [23].
Analgesic Effects
Pain management is an important component of veterinary care, particularly in animals suffering from inflammatory conditions, musculoskeletal disorders, or following surgical procedures. Natural compounds with analgesic properties are increasingly being explored as supportive therapeutic agents.
The pain-relieving properties of clove have been recognized since the thirteenth century. Traditionally, it has been used to alleviate a variety of painful conditions, including toothache, joint pain, and pain associated with muscle spasms [5]. Its analgesic effects are believed to result, in part, from the modulation of chloride and calcium ion channels in ganglion cells. In addition, the pain-relieving action of clove has also been linked to its agonistic activity on capsaicin-sensitive receptors [14]. The analgesic potential of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of clove (Syzygium aromaticum) was evaluated in a preclinical mouse model using the hot plate test. Mice receiving the aqueous extract at doses of 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg exhibited significantly greater pain tolerance than untreated controls, whereas the ethanolic extract produced only a modest, non-significant analgesic response. Based on these findings, the investigators suggested that the aqueous clove extract has promising analgesic properties in mice, while noting that additional research is needed to clarify its underlying mechanism of action [25].
Hepatoprotective Effects
Clove has been reported to possess hepatoprotective properties. Experimental studies have demonstrated that both the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of clove protect against paracetamol-induced liver injury. This protective effect is associated with a reduction in the serum activities of the liver enzymes aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT), indicating attenuation of hepatic damage [2].The hepatoprotective potential of a hydroalcoholic extract of clove (Syzygium aromaticum) was investigated in rats with thioacetamide-induced liver injury. Animals were pretreated with clove extract at doses of 50, 150, or 300 mg/kg for 21 days before exposure to thioacetamide. Compared with untreated hepatotoxic animals, rats receiving the clove extract exhibited significant improvements in liver function, indicating a protective effect against chemically induced hepatic damage. Treatment with clove extract resulted in a significant decline in serum markers of liver injury, including aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP). It also increased total plasma protein and albumin concentrations, indicating an improvement in liver function. Based on these biochemical findings, the authors suggested that oral administration of clove extract alleviated thioacetamide-induced hepatotoxicity and exerted hepatoprotective effects in rats [26]. In another preclinical investigation, the hepatoprotective activity of an aqueous extract of clove (Syzygium aromaticum) was assessed in rats with paracetamol-induced liver damage. Co-administration of clove extract at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg significantly mitigated hepatic injury. This protective effect was reflected by decreased serum bilirubin, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels, together with the restoration of serum albumin concentrations. Histopathological evaluation supported the biochemical findings by showing that treatment with clove extract substantially protected the liver from paracetamol-induced damage and helped maintain normal hepatic tissue architecture. Based on both the histological and biochemical evidence, the authors concluded that the aqueous extract of clove possesses hepatoprotective activity against paracetamol-induced liver injury in rats [27].
Antidiabetic Effects
Diabetes mellitus is a common endocrine disorder in companion animals. Natural compounds with hypoglycaemic properties, such as clove, are being investigated for their potential role in supporting glycaemic regulation.
An investigation into type 2 diabetic KK-Ay mice revealed that an ethanolic clove (Syzygium aromaticum) extract effectively lowered blood glucose levels. Through bioassay-guided fractionation, researchers pinpointed oleanolic acid, dehydrodieugenol, and dehydrodieugenol B as the constituents responsible for this activity. Further testing demonstrated that both dehydrodieugenol and dehydrodieugenol B were capable of binding to PPAR-γ ligands and inducing the differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. The researchers proposed that these specific compounds mediate clove's hypoglycaemic effects via PPAR-γ activation, suggesting that it could serve as a functional food ingredient in preventing type 2 diabetes [28].
Neuroprotective Effects
The neuroprotective potential of medicinal plants has gained increasing attention due to their ability to target multiple pathways involved in neuronal injury. Clove is one such plant that has shown promising effects in preclinical research.
A review examining the neuropharmacological properties of clove (Syzygium aromaticum) described the therapeutic potential of several of its bioactive constituents, including eugenol, α-humulene, β-caryophyllene, gallic acid, quercetin, and luteolin. According to the review, these phytochemicals exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective activities that may protect neurons by limiting oxidative stress, suppressing neuroinflammation, reducing neuronal apoptosis, and regulating signalling pathways involved in neuroprotection. The review also noted that different parts of the clove plant are rich in both essential and non-essential amino acids, which play important roles in neurotransmitter production, antioxidant defence, immune function, and metabolic homeostasis. On the basis of the available preclinical findings, the authors suggested that clove could be a promising candidate for the prevention and management of neurodegenerative diseases, while emphasizing the need for well-designed clinical studies to confirm its efficacy and safety in humans [29].
Anticancer Effects
The antioxidant properties that allow cloves to neutralize ROS also contribute to their potential anticancer effects. Clove oil has been noted for its role in chemoprevention, showing particular promise against digestive, skin, and lung cancers [2]. The antitumor activity is attributed in part to oleanic acid, which is present in the ethyl acetate extract of the plant. Furthermore, both eugenol and clove essential oil have demonstrated anti-cancer activity when tested against colorectal cancer, leukemia, and breast cancer cells [13]. Researchers investigated the potential of an ethanolic extract of Syzygium aromaticum as an antioxidant and anticancer agent by testing it against oral squamous cell carcinoma (KB) cells and normal mouse fibroblast (L292) cells. The extract showed a concentration-dependent increase in free radical-scavenging activity and progressively reduced the viability of KB cells. The biological activity of the extract was comparable to that produced by the reference drug used in the study. Based on these results, the investigators proposed that clove extract could serve as a promising source of compounds with antioxidant and anticancer potential against oral squamous cell carcinoma, although additional studies are required to identify the specific bioactive constituents responsible for these effects and to validate their therapeutic applicability [24].
III . Conclusion
Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) is a rich source of bioactive phytochemicals, particularly eugenol, that contribute to its wide range of biological activities. The available evidence demonstrates that clove possesses antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic, neuroprotective, and anticancer properties, highlighting its potential as a functional ingredient for supporting the health and well-being of companion animals. Additionally, its antioxidant and antimicrobial properties make it a promising natural preservative for pet food applications. While most of the available evidence is derived from in vitro, preclinical, and human studies, these findings provide a strong scientific basis for the continued exploration of clove as a beneficial ingredient in companion animal nutrition.
In alignment with its well-established functional benefits, clove has been incorporated into India's first cold-pressed dog food by Venttura, primarily for its antioxidant, antimicrobial, and natural preservative properties. Venttura offers Junior - Turkey & Duck and Adult - Turkey & Duck variants, both formulated with clove as a functional ingredient.
Frequently Asked Questions
1) What is the main active compound in clove?
2) Can clove help with bacterial infections in dogs?
3) Why is clove used in dog food?
4) Is clove safe for dogs in the amounts used in pet food?
IV . References
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