Written by: Venttura Nutrition Team
Reviewed by: a certified veterinary nutritionist

Published: July 2026 | Last Updated: July 2026
Reading time: 10 minutes

Ahiflower oil, extracted from Buglossoides arvensis seeds, is a plant-based multi-omega lipid rich in stearidonic acid (SDA) and GLA, offering a sustainable alternative to fish oil for supporting skin, joint, cardiovascular, neurological, and gut health in dogs and cats.

 

Key Takeaways

• Ahiflower oil comes from Buglossoides arvensis seeds and contains the highest recorded stearidonic acid (SDA) content among plant oils, at 18-20%.
• SDA converts to EPA more efficiently than ALA (found in flax or chia), making Ahiflower a more effective plant-based omega-3 source.
• Research links Ahiflower oil to skin barrier support, anti-inflammatory effects, joint health, cognitive function, gut microbiome balance, and cardiovascular health.
• Unlike fish oil, Ahiflower oil avoids marine ecosystem pressure and contamination risks like methyl mercury.
• It is used as a functional ingredient in select pet foods, including Venttura's cold-pressed dog food line.

 

I. INTRODUCTION

Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are vital nutrients required for various metabolic functions and play an important role in maintaining overall health. They are termed “essential” because pets are unable to produce them from other nutrients such as proteins or carbohydrates, making dietary intake necessary. Essential fatty acids (EFAs) serve as the foundational compounds for the formation of two major groups of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs): omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. These EFAs are mainly divided into two categories-α-linolenic acid (ALA), which belongs to the omega-3 or n-3 series, and linoleic acid (LA), which is part of the omega-6 or n-6 series. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) are omega-3 fatty acids belonging to the n-3 series, whereas γ-linolenic acid (GLA) and arachidonic acid are part of the omega-6 or n-6 series. Both EFA groups play a pivotal role in managing inflammation by supporting the skin's epidermal barrier, generating anti-inflammatory mediators, and competing with the enzymes responsible for arachidonic acid synthesis [1]. Achieving the optimal balance of these omega-3 and omega-6 series through diet alone can be complex, leading researchers to explore diverse botanical lipids. Among the most promising recent discoveries for pet nutrition is Ahiflower oil. This specialty plant oil is derived from a unique floral source that bypasses the metabolic limitations of traditional seed oils, providing a direct and sustainable pathway to systemic wellness.

Ahiflower oil is obtained from the seeds of Buglossoides arvensis (L.) I.M. Johnst., an annual herbaceous plant belonging to the Boraginaceae family. This plant is commonly known as corn gromwell or bastard alkanet and serves as the botanical source of the oil [2]. The plant is originally native to northern parts of Europe and Asia, but it has also spread to wheat-cultivating areas in Australia and across North and South America, where it is often found as a weed. Furthermore, studies have reported that Buglossoides arvensis can be cultivated successfully in cool temperate climates, including countries such as the United Kingdom[4]. Developed over many years, Ahiflower has been produced through conventional plant breeding and careful natural selection, with no genetic modification involved. This breeding program has resulted in internationally protected, elite cultivars that are both stable and high yielding, producing an oilseed crop notable for its exceptionally high stearidonic acid (SDA) content of about 18-20%, the highest recorded among commercially available plant sources [5]. Alongside this, the oil also provides a therapeutically relevant level of omega-6 γ-linolenic acid (GLA), generally in the range of 5-6%[4].

 

 

II. UNIQUE FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF AHIFLOWER OIL

Ahiflower oil is characterized by a unique fatty acid profile, in which omega-3 fatty acids make up the largest share, accounting for approximately 66.67%, a proportion higher than that found in typical plant-based oils. Ahiflower oil contains a well-defined fatty acid profile, with its omega-3 fraction made up primarily of α-linolenic acid (ALA; 18:3n-3) at about 46.1-47.9% and stearidonic acid (SDA) at around 17.3-20.1%. Its omega-6 content includes linoleic acid (LA; 18:2n-6) in the range of 11.4-11.8% and γ-linolenic acid (GLA) at approximately 4.9-5.8%. In addition to these polyunsaturated fatty acids, the oil also contains monounsaturated oleic acid (OA) at 7.5-9.4%, along with smaller proportions of saturated fatty acids such as palmitic acid (16:0; 4.7-5.2%) and stearic acid (18:0; 1.8-1.9%) [6,7]. Ahiflower oil has an SDA (stearidonic acid) content of about 20% of total fatty acids, making it a significant source of this omega-3 compound. Stearidonic acid (SDA) functions as an intermediate metabolite in the conversion pathway from α-linolenic acid (ALA) to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), following the sequence ALA → SDA → EPA. Most plant species contain little to no SDA, however, certain plant families such as Boraginaceae,  Caryophyllaceae, Grossulariaceae, and Primulaceae are exceptions, as they naturally possess higher SDA concentrations. Importantly, SDA does not tend to accumulate in body tissues, suggesting that it is efficiently and readily converted into EPA [2,3].

 

All clinical evidence available to date indicates that stearidonic acid (SDA) is efficiently converted into eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; n-3, C20:5) and docosapentaenoic acid (DPA; n-3, C22:5) in circulating human cells, as well as in liver, intestinal, and brain tissues in mice. This conversion occurs more effectively than that observed with α-linolenic acid (ALA) [4].  After intake of ALA from common dietary sources such as nuts, seeds, and seed oils like flax or chia, it must first undergo conversion in the liver to SDA through the action of the Δ6-desaturase (6D) enzyme, which is often inefficient. Direct consumption of SDA bypasses this rate-limiting step, thereby enhancing the efficiency of EPA synthesis and resulting in higher EPA accumulation compared with ALA intake. Consequently, SDA-containing plant oils can serve as a more effective dietary strategy to increase omega-3 status from plant-based sources [5].

 

III. COMPARATIVE FATTY ACID PROFILE OF AHIFLOWER OIL AND CONVENTIONAL PLANT AND MARINE OILS

Building on the comparative fatty acid composition of Ahiflower oil, its nutritional significance becomes more evident when evaluated against commonly used plant-based and marine lipid sources. Differences in omega-3 concentration, omega-6 balance, and functional fatty acid intermediates highlight its distinct metabolic advantages. The following section compares Ahiflower oil with other dietary oils in terms of fatty acid ratios and physiological relevance.

 

 

Fatty Acid Profiles of Ahiflower Oil Versus Conventional Plant and Marine Oils [8, 17,46 ]

 

Fatty Acids	AHIFLOWER OIL	FLAX SEED OIL	CHIA SEED OIL	HEMP SEED OIL	ECHIUM OIL	BORAGE	EVENING PRIM-ROSE OIL	FISH OIL
Linoleic acid (18:2n-6)	11.4-11.8	15.3-16.1	18.9-20.4	55.3-55.9	15.2-16.5	35-40	70-74	13.8
Alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n-3)	46.1-47.9	56.4-58.2	59.8-63.8	16.7-20.3	30.2-32.8	---	---	6.1
Gamma-linolenic acid (18:3n-6)	4.9-5.8	---	---	4.0-4.4	10.4-10.8	15-22	6-10	0.1
Stearidonic acid (18:4n-3)	17.3-20.1	---	---	1.3-2.0	11.1-12.1	---	---	0.8
Total PUFAs	79.7-85.6	71.7-74.3	78.7-84.2	77.3-82.6	66.9-72.2	50-62	76-84	30.2

 

Although chia seed oil possesses similar total omega-3 concentrations (59.8-63.8%), its elevated omega-6 levels (18.9-20.4%) lead to a 1:3 omega-6 to omega-3 ratio, which is less optimal than the 1:4 ratio found in Ahiflower oil [6,7,9]. With an omega-3 content ranging from 63.4% to 68.0%, Ahiflower oil outperfoms other common plant-based sources. This includes flax seed (56.4-58.2%), echium (41.3-44.9%), and hemp seed (18-22.3%) [9, 10, 11, 12,13]. This fatty acid profile, particularly the presence of stearidonic acid (SDA), contributes to its advantage because SDA is converted to EPA more efficiently than α-linolenic acid (ALA) and bypasses the rate-limiting step in the n-3 metabolic pathway. This makes Ahiflower oil a strong plant-based alternative without relying on marine sources [8].

 

The omega-6 fatty acid known as GLA is present in minimal quantities in various foods, including oats, barley, meats, seafood, nuts, and leafy greens. More concentrated sources include oils from borage (18-26%), blackcurrant (15-20%), and evening primrose (7-10%). Within the body, GLA is synthesized from linoleic acid and quickly transforms into dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA). This anti-inflammatory molecule helps reduce the levels of pro-inflammatory arachidonic acid [2]. When comparing the four commonly used GLA-rich oils, a clear distinction emerges in their fatty acid profiles. Borage and evening primrose oils contain no omega-3 fatty acids, while echium oil provides only around 60% of the omega-3 content found in Ahiflower oil. Despite this, Ahiflower oil maintains GLA levels that are comparable to both evening primrose and echium oils. Overall, Ahiflower oil offers the most balanced combination of plant-derived omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, with an optimal ratio of approximately 4:1. To achieve a comprehensive and balanced omega intake, Ahiflower eliminates the requirement for blending borage or evening primrose oils with fish, flaxseed, or algal sources. Unlike borage or evening primrose oil, Ahiflower offers a uniquely potent plant-based omega-3 boost while still providing a similar amount of GLA per dose. From a holistic health standpoint, this specific ratio of plant-based omegas-high in the metabolic intermediates GLA and stearidonic acid (SDA)-promotes a healthy inflammatory response [17].

A study reported that Ahiflower oil, a plant source rich in omega-3 fatty acids, can support the formation and turnover of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in body tissues at levels similar to those observed with direct DHA supplementation. In a controlled mouse study, researchers compared Ahiflower oil with flaxseed oil and fish-derived DHA ethyl ester to track DHA synthesis and turnover in serum and multiple tissues over time. The findings showed that DHA levels and turnover in serum, liver, fat tissue, and brain were comparable between the Ahiflower and DHA groups. However, animals receiving flaxseed oil showed markedly reduced DHA production and slower turnover across all tissues studied. Overall, the study suggests that Ahiflower oil may maintain DHA status and turnover similarly to dietary DHA, while flaxseed oil is significantly less efficient [5].  Plant-derived oils such as Ahiflower oil avoid pressure on marine ecosystems and reduce the environmental burden associated with fish oil production, making them a more sustainable option for large-scale omega-3 supplementation [14, 15]. In addition, marine-derived oils may carry a risk of contamination with pollutants such as methyl mercury, especially when sourced from larger predatory fish, therefore, plant-based alternatives like Ahiflower oil offer a safer means of increasing n-3 fatty acid intake while addressing both environmental and contaminant-related concerns [16]. Furthermore, the relatively balanced omega-6 to omega-3 ratio of approximately 1:4 in Ahiflower oil may help restore dietary lipid balance and potentially counteract inflammation linked to excessive omega-6 consumption [17].

 

IV. BENEFITS OF EFAS

EFAs are indispensable for mammals and are involved in a wide range of physiological processes. They contribute to maintaining the structural integrity and proper functioning of smooth muscle organs, including the heart and reproductive system. These fatty acids also support liver cell protection while playing a key role in preserving healthy skin architecture, coat condition, and joint tissue strength. In addition, essential fatty acids act as precursors for bioactive lipid mediators such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is particularly important for the development and function of the brain, immune system, and retinal health in both puppies and adult dogs. Linoleic acid contributes to maintaining the skin’s cutaneous water barrier, while arachidonic acid regulates epidermal cell proliferation through prostaglandin E2 signaling. A deficiency of essential fatty acids can significantly impair normal physiological functions in the body. Inadequate levels are commonly associated with the development of chronic dermatological conditions affecting the skin and coat, along with gastrointestinal disturbances, cardiovascular disorders, degenerative ocular diseases, and increased susceptibility to allergies in both dogs and cats. Consequently, EFAs should not be viewed merely as optional nutritional supplements, but rather as fundamental dietary components necessary for maintaining overall health and physiological balance [25]. The following sections describe these benefits in detail, with specific focus on skin health, anti-inflammatory effects, and related physiological functions.

 

 

Skin Health and Barrier Function

In dogs and cats, omega-3 fatty acids are frequently suggested for managing itchy skin conditions linked to hypersensitivity, including flea allergy dermatitis, atopy, food allergies, and idiopathic pruritus. They are also used to address the eosinophilic granuloma complex in felines [26]. Linoleic acid (LA) plays an essential role in maintaining the epidermal permeability barrier and acts as a precursor for prostaglandin synthesis in dogs and cats, as demonstrated in several studies [27]. The skin’s water barrier is largely dependent on ceramides within cell membranes, which are derived from omega-6 fatty acids such as LA. These lipid components enhance cohesion between skin cells, thereby strengthening the epidermal barrier and reducing transepidermal water loss. This mechanism explains why dogs with dry, dull coats and non-pruritic scaling skin conditions often show improvement following dietary supplementation with vegetable oils rich in linoleic acid. Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids also help manage the inflammatory response by producing mediators that are less pro-inflammatory. When the skin is damaged, omega-6 fatty acids (AA) are converted into PGE-2 and leukotriene-4. In contrast, omega-3 fatty acids transform into PGE-3 and leukotriene-5, which cause significantly less inflammation than the omega-6 isomers. These omega-3 derived mediators interfere with neutrophil activation, which helps reduce the severity of allergic or inflammatory conditions  [28].

 

 

Anti-inflammatory and Joint Health Benefits

A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial reported that Ahiflower oil supplementation significantly increased omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) levels and promoted anti-inflammatory effects in healthy adults. In the 28-day study, participants consumed different doses of Ahiflower oil. The results showed significant increases in plasma and mononuclear cell levels of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), α-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosatetraenoic acid (ETA), and docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) in all Ahiflower groups compared to the control group, although no significant increase in DHA levels was observed. The highest Ahiflower dose also increased interleukin-10 (IL-10), an anti-inflammatory cytokine, indicating a shift toward an anti-inflammatory response. Overall, the study suggests that Ahiflower oil is safe, effectively improves omega-3 status, and may support anti-inflammatory activity in healthy individuals [7]. Research indicates that supplementing the diet with omega-3 fatty acids, specifically oil from Buglossoides arvensis (Ahiflower), assisted in mitigating inflammatory responses within a mouse model of rheumatoid arthritis. While these omega-3 enriched diets did not entirely halt the progression of arthritis, the mice receiving B. arvensis oil or fish oil experienced a significant reduction in ankle swelling relative to the control group. Furthermore, platelets from the mice on a low-dose B. arvensis oil diet generated fewer platelet microvesicles (PMVs), which are known markers of inflammation. The findings suggest that B. arvensis oil offers anti-inflammatory benefits similar to those of fish oil, highlighting its potential as a sustainable, plant-derived omega-3 alternative for managing immune and inflammatory health [34].

 

Research has demonstrated the efficacy of marine-derivedn-3 fatty acids in managing osteoarthritis (OA) in dogs [29, 30].  Dietary supplementation with these fatty acids increases their concentration within tissues and cell membranes, resulting in a proportional decrease in omega-6 fatty acid levels, particularly arachidonic acid.

Additionally, owner assessments have indicated notable improvements in clinical signs of osteoarthritis, particularly mobility and walking ability, after 12 and 24 weeks of dietary intervention [31]. In addition, supplementation with fish oil-derived omega-3 fatty acids has been reported to further improve clinical signs associated with osteoarthritis in dogs [29].

 

 

Neuroprotective and Cognitive Benefits

The distinctive omega fatty acid profile of Ahiflower, especially its high stearidonic acid (SDA) content, makes Ahiflower oil a promising nutritional therapeutic agent for promoting cognitive performance and supporting brain health [17]. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial assessed the effects of a dietary supplement containing Ahiflower in 60 healthy younger and older adults over 28 days. The results demonstrated that younger adults receiving the supplement exhibited improved cognitive flexibility and executive function compared with the placebo group. Moreover, both younger and older participants showed enhanced reaction times during an attention-shifting test, with improvements approximately 44% greater than those observed in controls. The investigators concluded that the supplement may positively influence certain aspects of cognition and attention; however, additional studies are required to confirm these findings [35].

 

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), act as essential precursors for compounds like resolvins, protectins, and maresins. These substances are critical for resolving inflammation and safeguarding neural tissue [14, 18, 19]. By actively encouraging the resolution of neuroinflammation and aiding in tissue repair, these lipid mediators provide vital neuroprotective benefits. Furthermore, omega-3 fatty acids trigger anti-inflammatory pathways that are fundamental to the body's defense against disease [14, 18]. DHA is particularly concentrated within brain cell membranes, where it plays a major role in nervous system development, synaptic plasticity, and the growth of new neurons. While EPA is present in smaller amounts within brain tissue, it is thought to help lower inflammation by regulating the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and shielding nerve cells from injury [18]. Combined, these fatty acids are vital to the brain's repair and defense mechanisms. They assist in controlling inflammation, guarding against oxidative stress, and preserving cognitive performance. Research also indicates that increased consumption of EPA and DHA is associated with a lower risk of brain-related disorders and cognitive impairment [20,  21]. A human clinical trial reported that supplementation with Ahiflower oil led to an increase in the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 (IL-10). At the highest administered dose of 9.7 mL per day, participants demonstrated approximately a 45% elevation in IL-10 levels. This rise in IL-10 is particularly relevant in the context of neuroprotection, as IL-10 is a key regulator of neuroinflammatory pathways that are closely associated with the development and progression of neurodegenerative disorders [7].

 

Diets lacking adequate omega-3 fatty acids are thus considered suboptimal for early neural development, as these lipids are essential for normal brain formation and function [36]. Insufficient intake may contribute to functional impairments within the nervous system [37]. Beyond development, omega-3 fatty acids also exhibit neuroprotective properties; in epileptic animals, they have been shown to raise the seizure threshold [38]. Their anticonvulsant effects are thought to involve enhanced formation of interneurons and improved neurotransmission via GABAergic pathways [39]. In canine models, diets enriched with n-3 fatty acids have been associated with a reduction in convulsive manifestations [38]. Furthermore, supplementation in dogs with drug-resistant epilepsy has been reported to reduce seizure frequency by approximately 85% [39]. A study has reported that German Shepherd dogs exhibiting aggressive behaviour show markedly reduced levels of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6 n-3), along with a significantly elevated omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acid ratio, compared to non-aggressive counterparts [40]. In growing puppies, whose nervous systems are still undergoing maturation, omega-3 fatty acid supplementation may provide important developmental benefits. It has also been suggested to support cognitive health in ageing dogs affected by conditions such as canine cognitive dysfunction. Increased DHA intake has been associated with improved neurological development, with DHA-enriched diets linked to enhanced cognitive and psychomotor performance in puppies. However, these outcomes may not be solely attributable to DHA, as such diets often contain additional vitamins and antioxidants that could also contribute to the observed effects [1].

 

 

Gut Health and Microbiome Modulation

Dietary lipids interact closely with the gut microbiota, and this microbial population can influence both gastrointestinal function and overall systemic health [8]. Supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids, particularly EPA and DHA, has been associated with favourable changes in gut bacterial composition. Studies have shown increases in beneficial microorganisms such as Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, and Akkermansia, along with higher abundance of butyrate-producing genera including Eubacterium, Roseburia, and Coprococcus. These omega-3-induced modifications in the intestinal microbiome are believed to contribute to their broader health-promoting effects [22, 23]. Furthermore, maintaining a balanced ratio of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids is linked to increased gut microbiome diversity, a key indicator of improved overall health. During states of dysbiosis, the interaction between omega-3, omega-6, and omega-9 fatty acids becomes increasingly vital. Omega-3 PUFAs have the potential to restore the microbiota composition in cases of inflammatory bowel disease by boosting the generation of anti-inflammatory compounds, such as SCFAs [23, 24].

 

 

Cardiovascular Health Benefits

Heart disease affects roughly 11% of the canine population and 20% of the feline population [25]. Numerous experiments have demonstrated that omega-3 fatty acids provide various beneficial effects in managing cardiac conditions. Specifically, omega-3 fatty acids directly reduce the production of TNF and IL-1, and their supplementation has been shown to mitigate muscle loss in dogs suffering from congestive heart failure (CHF) [41]. Supplementing with omega-3 fatty acids reduces the production of inflammatory mediators, which subsequently decreases platelet aggregation and inflammation while promoting vasodilation [42]. These fatty acids also lower arrhythmogenesis and reduce levels of triacylglycerols and plasma VLDL, thereby inhibiting the development of atherosclerosis. In research conducted by [43], omega-3 supplementation resulted in a significant reduction in cachexia scores as well as levels of circulating TNF, IL-1, and PGE. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation has been associated with a reduction in ventricular premature complexes in dogs affected by arrhythmogenic ventricular cardiomyopathy [44]. In addition, dogs suffering from heart failure have been shown to exhibit lower circulating concentrations of EPA and DHA compared to healthy individuals, indicating altered fatty acid status in diseased states [45]. Beyond these effects, omega-3 fatty acids are also reported to support multiple aspects of cardiovascular physiology, including improved endothelial function, modulation of heart rate, enhanced myocardial energy metabolism, and beneficial influences on immune function [1].

 

Renal Health

Omega-3 fatty acids have been shown to slow the progression of kidney disease in dogs while also helping to reduce glomerular capillary hypertension [32]. Their anti-inflammatory properties contribute to reduced renal inflammation and improved renal blood flow. Dietary supplementation with n-3 fatty acids has also been associated with attenuation of progressive canine nephropathies, helping to maintain glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and thereby preserving renal structure. In addition, omega-3 supplementation has been linked to a slower rise in serum creatinine levels, along with improvements in serum albumin and reductions in proteinuria. Beneficial effects have also been observed on lipid metabolism, including decreased serum cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations. In dogs with renal insufficiency, dietary n-3 fatty acids have further been reported to significantly reduce blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and triglyceride levels [33].

 

Reproductive Health and Fertility

Reproductive failure in dogs is not solely linked to reduced sperm concentration but can also be associated with inadequate intake of essential micronutrients in the diet. Omega-3 fatty acids derived from fish have been shown to exert beneficial effects on sperm motility and overall fertility. Diets rich in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids may enhance sperm function by modifying sperm membrane composition and reducing lipid peroxidation in sperm cells, thereby improving cellular stability and performance [1].

 

 

V. CONCLUSION

Ahiflower oil represents a comprehensive, plant-based source of essential fatty acids, distinguished by its unique combination of stearidonic acid (SDA) and γ-linolenic acid (GLA), along with a low linoleic acid content that supports more efficient fatty acid metabolism. Evidence from experimental and clinical studies indicates its potential to enhance omega-3 status and promote anti-inflammatory lipid mediators, contributing to improved physiological function across multiple systems, including skin, cardiovascular, immune, neurological, and joint health. In addition to its nutritional advantages, Ahiflower oil offers a sustainable, regenerative, and traceable alternative to marine-derived omega-3 sources, with scalable production and reduced environmental impact. Collectively, these attributes position Ahiflower® oil as a balanced and biologically advanced “multi-omega” lipid source with broad relevance in companion animal nutrition and overall health support.

 

In alignment with its established functional benefits, at Venttura we have incorporated Ahiflower oil into India’s first cold-pressed dog food. Venttura offers Junior - Turkey & Duck and Adult - Turkey & Duck variants, designed to support overall skin, coat, immune, and systemic health in companion animals through a balanced source of essential fatty acids. This represents a pioneering application of Ahiflower oil in complete pet food formulation, highlighting its innovative integration into functional pet nutrition.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1) What is Ahiflower oil and where does it come from?

2) How is Ahiflower oil different from fish oil?

3) Can Ahiflower oil help with my dog's skin and coat?

4) Does Ahiflower oil support joint or heart health in pets?

 

VI. REFERENCES

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